Africa hosts more United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions than any other continent, with over 30 operations since 1960 addressing conflicts that threaten the lives of millions. These missions, often in partnership with the African Union (AU) and regional organizations like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), aim to protect civilians, support peace agreements, and facilitate humanitarian aid in volatile regions. Sudan and South Sudan, marked by decades of conflict, exemplify the challenges and complexities of such interventions. This article explores the history, mandates, military interactions, and challenges of peace missions in these two nations, with a particular focus on their implications for state sovereignty and conflict resolution. By examining key missions—such as the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS), the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), and the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA)—alongside recent calls for a new mission in Sudan, we highlight the delicate balance between respecting national sovereignty and addressing humanitarian crises.
Roots of Discord: A Historical Overview
The conflicts in Sudan and South Sudan are rooted in ethnic, religious, and political divisions, compounded by competition over resources like oil. Sudan’s Second Civil War (1983–2005) between the government in Khartoum and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) in the south resulted in approximately two million deaths and four million displacements. The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), brokered through international mediation, ended the war and set a six-year interim period culminating in a referendum for South Sudan’s independence. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan became the world’s newest nation, significantly altering Sudan’s territorial sovereignty.
However, independence did not bring lasting peace. South Sudan descended into civil war in 2013, driven by political rivalries and ethnic tensions, leading to widespread violence, displacement, and humanitarian crises. Over 200,000 civilians sought refuge in UNMISS Protection of Civilians (PoC) sites, highlighting the scale of the conflict. Meanwhile, Sudan faced ongoing violence in regions like Darfur, where the African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) operated until 2020. Since April 2023, a power struggle between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has escalated, causing over 18,800 deaths, displacing 8.6 million people, and leaving 24.8 million in need of assistance. This conflict has prompted renewed calls for international intervention to protect civilians.
Pillars of Peace: Major Interventions in Sudan and South Sudan
United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS)
Established by UN Security Council Resolution 1590 in March 2005, UNMIS was tasked with supporting the implementation of the CPA, providing humanitarian assistance, protecting human rights, and assisting in governance and development. Operating until South Sudan’s independence on July 9, 2011, UNMIS monitored the ceasefire, facilitated the 2011 referendum that led to South Sudan’s secession, and supported the establishment of governance structures in the south. The mission’s budget for 2006–2007 was approximately $1.08 billion, reflecting its extensive mandate. UNMIS’s role in enabling South Sudan’s independence had profound implications for Sudan’s sovereignty, as it facilitated the country’s division.
United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS)
Following South Sudan’s independence, UNMISS was established on July 8, 2011, by Security Council Resolution 1996 to consolidate peace and security and support state-building. Its mandate, extended in April 2024 by Resolution 2729, includes protecting civilians, monitoring human rights, supporting humanitarian aid, and promoting peace agreements. With a force of up to 17,000 troops and 2,101 police personnel, UNMISS operates in a challenging environment. The mission has facilitated food, water, and shelter distribution, conducted training on gender-based violence, and worked with UNICEF to reintegrate child soldiers. However, it has faced significant obstacles, including government obstruction and attacks on its personnel. Notably, UNMISS’s PoC sites have sheltered over 200,000 civilians, though incidents like the 2014 Bor attack and the 2016 Malakal attack, which killed dozens, underscore the difficulties in ensuring civilian safety.
United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA)
UNISFA was established in June 2011 by Security Council Resolution 1990 to monitor the disputed Abyei region on the Sudan-South Sudan border. Composed primarily of Ethiopian troops, UNISFA’s mandate includes demilitarizing the area, facilitating humanitarian aid, and protecting civilians. Operating in a region where sovereignty remains contested, UNISFA navigates delicate relations with both Sudanese and South Sudanese authorities. The mission’s efforts to maintain peace in Abyei are complicated by ongoing tensions and the presence of armed groups, requiring both diplomatic engagement and, at times, the use of force.
Calls for a New Peace Mission in Sudan
Since the outbreak of conflict between the SAF and RSF in April 2023, Sudan has faced a humanitarian catastrophe, with reports of war crimes, including rape, torture, and child soldier recruitment. The UN Independent International Fact-Finding Mission for Sudan, established in October 2023, released its first report on 6 September 2024, documenting these violations and urging the deployment of an independent and impartial force to protect civilians. This call, supported by UN officials and human rights organizations, emphasizes the need for urgent intervention to address the crisis, which has displaced millions and left over 70% of Sudan’s health facilities non-functional. However, Sudan’s government has opposed such interventions, complicating the prospects for a new mission.
Balancing Acts: Sovereignty and Intervention in African Peacekeeping
Peace missions operate within the framework of international law, which emphasizes state sovereignty and typically requires the consent of the host government. However, when governments are unable or unwilling to protect their citizens, the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine may justify intervention to prevent mass atrocities. In Sudan and South Sudan, this tension is evident. UNMIS operated with Sudan’s consent to implement the CPA, but its role in facilitating South Sudan’s secession effectively reduced Sudan’s territorial sovereignty. Similarly, UNMISS operates with the permission of the Government of South Sudan. Still, the government has obstructed operations, such as blocking fuel supplies in 2014 and expelling a UN official in 2015, viewing PoC sites as supporting opposition groups.
The proposed mission in Sudan faces significant sovereignty-related challenges. The Sudanese government, as a party to the conflict, is unlikely to consent to a peacekeeping force, especially one mandated to protect civilians from its troops. This situation raises questions about the legitimacy and feasibility of intervention without host state approval. The AU’s preference for African-led solutions, as seen in its diplomatic efforts in Sudan, further complicates the deployment of a UN-led mission, highlighting the need for coordination between global and regional actors.
Frontlines of Peace: Military Engagements in Sudan and South Sudan
Peace missions in Sudan and South Sudan involve significant military components to fulfill their mandates. UNMISS peacekeepers have used force to protect civilians from armed groups and, occasionally, government forces. However, they have also been targeted, with incidents like the 2016 Juba clashes exposing vulnerabilities in their response capabilities. UNISFA’s demilitarization efforts in Abyei require interactions with local militias and the armies of both Sudan and South Sudan, necessitating a balance between diplomacy and force. The proposed mission in Sudan would likely face similar challenges, engaging with well-armed factions in a volatile environment.
These military interactions highlight the risks peacekeepers face, including attacks that have resulted in casualties, such as the assassination of a UNMIS deputy commander in 2009. The effectiveness of these missions is often limited by resource constraints and unclear command structures, as seen in UNMISS’s slow responses during attacks on PoC sites.
Trials and Triumphs: Navigating Peacekeeping Obstacles
Peace missions in Sudan and South Sudan face numerous challenges, which reflect broader issues in African peacekeeping:
| Challenge | Description | Example in Sudan/South Sudan |
| Security Risks | Peacekeepers operate in active conflict zones, facing threats from armed groups and host governments. | Attacks on UNMISS PoC sites in Bor (2014) and Malakal (2016) killed dozens of civilians. |
| Resource Constraints | Limited personnel, equipment, and funding hinder mission effectiveness. | UNMISS devoted half its resources to PoC sites by 2017, reducing broader protection capacity. |
| Political Complexities | Navigating relations with host governments and local stakeholders is difficult. | South Sudan’s government obstructed UNMISS operations, criticizing PoC sites. |
| Civilian Protection | Ensuring safety in large, remote areas is challenging. | UNISFA struggles to demilitarize Abyei amid ongoing tensions. |
| Accountability | Misconduct by peacekeepers, such as sexual abuse, undermines credibility. | UN disciplined peacekeepers in other African missions, highlighting accountability issues. |
These challenges have yielded valuable lessons:
- Clear Mandates: Missions require well-defined, achievable objectives aligned with available resources.
- Robust Protection Mechanisms: Effective strategies and capabilities are essential for civilian safety.
- Local Engagement: Building trust with communities enhances the legitimacy and effectiveness of the mission.
- Regional Coordination: Collaboration with the AU and regional bodies, such as IGAD, strengthens interventions.
The AU’s diplomatic efforts in Sudan, such as the 2024 field mission to Cairo and Port Sudan, underscore the importance of African-led initiatives. However, these have yet to translate into a military peacekeeping presence.
Conclusion
Peace missions in Sudan and South Sudan have been critical in addressing conflicts and protecting civilians, yet they face significant hurdles in balancing sovereignty with humanitarian imperatives. UNMIS, UNMISS, and UNISFA have navigated complex political and military landscapes, with varying degrees of success in achieving their mandates. The ongoing crisis in Sudan and calls for a new peacekeeping force underscore the persistent need for international intervention, as well as the challenges of securing host state consent and ensuring mission effectiveness. By learning from past experiences—such as the need for clear mandates, robust protection strategies, and regional cooperation—future missions can better address the intricate interplay of sovereignty and conflict in Africa’s volatile regions.
