Contextualizing the Crisis: Sudan’s War and African Solidarity
Sudan’s civil war, which erupted on April 15, 2023, has plunged the nation into chaos, with the SAF clashing against the RSF militia. This conflict has inflicted immense suffering, displacing millions and leaving many on the brink of starvation. The RSF, led by Hemedti, is a central figure, and its history, actions, and ambitions are critical to understanding the crisis. From a Pan-Africanist perspective, this war not only devastates Sudan but also challenges the continent’s unity and sovereignty, demanding African-led solutions.
The RSF Militia: A Threat to Sudan’s Sovereignty and African Unity
The RSF militia’s transformation from a local militia to a dominant force has reshaped Sudan’s political and military landscape. Its alleged crimes have drawn global condemnation, yet its pursuit of legitimacy complicates peace efforts. Understanding the RSF is essential for addressing Sudan’s humanitarian crisis and fostering stability across Africa.
Escalating Tensions: The War’s Impact on Sudan and Beyond
As of June 2025, the war continues, with intensified fighting in regions such as Kordofan and Darfur. The United Nations (UN) reported on June 17, 2025, that both sides’ use of heavy weaponry in populated areas has increased civilian casualties. Recent displacements, such as over 1,325 people fleeing Northern Sudan’s Halfa area in mid-June, highlight ongoing fear and instability.
Setting the Scene: Sudan’s Civil War and the RSF Militia’s Rise
Sudan, a cornerstone of northeast Africa with a population exceeding 45 million, is embroiled in a catastrophic civil war that began on April 15, 2023. This conflict, pitting the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, against the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) militia, commanded by General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), has precipitated what the United Nations describes as the world’s most severe humanitarian crisis. UN estimates suggest up to 150,000 deaths, 25 million people facing acute hunger, and over 12 million displaced, many seeking refuge in neighboring African countries, straining regional stability and challenging the principles of African unity.
The RSF, rooted in the Darfur conflict, is a pivotal actor in this war. Its evolution from a notorious “Janjweed” militia to a force seeking legal and political recognition, amidst allegations of grave human rights abuses, exemplifies the complex challenges facing Sudan and the broader African continent. From a Pan-Africanist perspective, this conflict underscores the urgent need for African-led solutions to counter external interference and restore sovereignty. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the RSF, examining its historical context, formation, legitimization efforts, alleged atrocities, and the conflict’s status as of June 2025, drawing on reports from human rights organizations and UN agencies.
Post-Independence Challenges: Sudan’s Struggle for Unity
Sudan’s modern history is marked by persistent conflict and division. Since gaining independence from British and Egyptian rule in 1956, the nation has grappled with its ethnic diversity—over 500 ethnic groups speaking more than 400 languages—and stark regional disparities. Two protracted civil wars between the Arab-dominated north and the predominantly African south (1955–1972 and 1983–2005) culminated in South Sudan’s secession in 2011, following conflicts that claimed over 2 million lives and displaced millions more. These wars not only devastated Sudan but also had ripple effects across Africa, contributing to refugee crises that burdened neighboring nations and strained continental solidarity.
The central government’s marginalization of non-Arab communities fueled rebellions, particularly in Darfur, Blue Nile, and South Kordofan, setting the stage for the rise of militias like the Janjaweed, which later became the RSF. This reliance on militias reflects a broader challenge in African governance: striking a balance between centralized authority and regional autonomy while fostering unity.
The Darfur Crisis: A Precursor to Division
The Darfur conflict, erupting in 2003, is a critical precursor to the current war. Rebel groups from the Fur, Masalit, and Zaghawa ethnicities, including the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), accused President Omar al-Bashir’s regime of economic neglect and political exclusion. The government responded by deploying the Janjaweed militias, primarily Arab nomadic tribes, to suppress the uprising. Their scorched-earth tactics—mass killings, rapes, and village burnings—resulted in approximately 300,000 deaths and 2.5 million displaced persons, as reported by UN agencies.
The international response included UN peacekeeping missions and sanctions, with the International Criminal Court (ICC) issuing an arrest warrant for al-Bashir in 2009 for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The Darfur crisis highlighted Sudan’s dependence on proxy militias, a strategy that empowered groups like the Janjaweed and sowed seeds of instability, with implications for African unity and self-determination.
Transition After Al-Bashir: Missed Opportunities for African Solutions
In April 2019, mass protests against al-Bashir’s 30-year rule, driven by economic hardship and political repression, led to a military coup that ousted him. The Transitional Military Council (TMC), comprising militia leaders from the SAF and RSF, assumed power alongside civilian groups in a fragile power-sharing arrangement. Tensions over integrating the RSF into the SAF and disputes over leadership roles foreshadowed the current conflict, which erupted in 2023 when negotiations collapsed, undermining Sudan’s democratic aspirations and continental efforts toward stable governance.
The RSF: From Janjaweed to a Force of Division
The RSF militia traces its origins to the Janjaweed militias, notorious for their brutality in the Darfur region. In August 2013, al-Bashir restructured these militias into the Rapid Support Forces to counter insurgencies in Darfur, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile following attacks by the Sudanese Revolutionary Front. General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), a former camel trader from the Rizeigat tribe, was appointed commander. Hemedti’s tribal affiliations and military experience enabled him to consolidate the RSF militia into a cohesive force, estimated at 100,000 fighters by 2023.
Initially, under the National Intelligence and Security Service, the RSF operated under SAF command during military operations. Its fighters, primarily from Arab tribes in Darfur and Kordofan, were supplemented by recruits from other regions, drawn by financial incentives in economically deprived areas, a pattern reflecting broader African challenges of poverty-driven militia recruitment.
Expansion and Operations: Exploiting Resources and External Ties
The RSF’s early missions included border patrols and counterinsurgency operations, but its influence expanded through international engagements and control of resources. In 2015, al-Bashir deployed RSF units to Yemen as part of a foreign-led coalition, securing financial rewards and military training. The RSF also seized control of Darfur’s gold mines, generating significant revenue that enhanced its autonomy. Human rights organizations reported ongoing abuses during this period, including attacks on civilians in Darfur’s Jebel Marra region, where over 3,000 homes were destroyed between 2014 and 2015, highlighting the RSF’s threat to African communities.
Legal Recognition: Legitimizing a Militia
In 2017, Sudan’s parliament passed the Rapid Support Forces Act, granting the RSF legal status as an independent security force. This controversial legislation, enacted under al-Bashir’s influence, formalized the RSF’s role outside the SAF hierarchy, fueling tensions with military leaders and drawing criticism from African civil society for legitimizing a group with a documented history of violence.
Seeking Legitimacy: The RSF’s Political Maneuvers
Following al-Bashir’s ouster, the RSF joined the TMC, with Hemedti as deputy chairman, positioning him as a key power broker. The RSF’s participation in the 2019 power-sharing agreement aimed to transition Sudan to democracy but was marred by its role in the Khartoum massacre, where over 128 protesters were killed. Tensions over integrating the RSF into the SAF led to the 2021 coup and the 2023 war outbreak, undermining African aspirations for democratic governance.
Parallel Government in 2025: A Threat to Sudan’s Unity
In April 2025, the RSF, alongside other factions and political parties, announced the establishment of a “Government of Peace and Unity” to govern areas under its control, formalized through a charter signed in Nairobi with allied factions. This move, rejected by the SAF-aligned government and criticized by the United Nations, sparked fears of Sudan’s fragmentation. The African Union, committed to preserving the territorial integrity of its member states, expressed concern that this could destabilize efforts for a unified Sudan and set a precedent for other African conflicts.
Atrocities and Accountability: The RSF’s Human Rights Violations
The RSF’s actions in Darfur have drawn significant condemnation. Human rights organizations documented widespread abuses during 2014–2015 counterinsurgency campaigns, including village burnings, mass rapes, and extrajudicial killings. In the current conflict, the militia is accused of targeting the Masalit community, with 2024 attacks resulting in mass executions and displacement. An assault in El-Fasher in April 2025 killed over 30 civilians, as reported by humanitarian groups. In January 2025, the United States declared these actions genocide, citing ethnic cleansing campaigns that threaten African communities’ survival.
Khartoum Massacre: A Blow to African Democratic Movements
On June 3, 2019, RSF forces, alongside SAF and other factions, violently dispersed a pro-democracy sit-in in Khartoum, killing at least 128 protesters, injuring hundreds, and committing rapes, according to medical committees. Witnesses reported military members disposing of bodies in the Nile River to conceal evidence. This massacre damaged the RSF’s and the TMC’s reputation and highlighted their use of lethal force against civilians, resonating with broader African struggles against repression.
Ongoing Abuses: War Crimes in the Current Conflict
Since 2023, the RSF has been implicated in thousands of violent incidents, as recorded by conflict monitoring groups. Reports indicate widespread sexual violence, with thousands of rape cases attributed to militia fighters, including victims as young as 12. The RSF is also accused of recruiting child soldiers and looting humanitarian aid, exacerbating famine in Darfur. The UN Fact-Finding Mission noted RSF shelling of medical facilities, such as the Saudi Hospital in El-Fasher, which was attacked 12 times, and a drone strike on Obeid International Hospital in May 2025 that killed six civilians.
The War Today: Military Stalemate and Humanitarian Catastrophe
As of June 2025, the conflict remains in a strategic stalemate, with both sides intensifying operations. The SAF recently declared Khartoum state free of RSF presence, while the RSF claimed victories in North Darfur State. The UN Fact-Finding Mission reported on June 17, 2025, that heavy weaponry use in populated areas like El-Fasher has increased civilian casualties. Retaliatory violence is rampant, with the RSF killing 30 civilians in Omdurman’s Al-Salha on April 27, 2025, and the SAF targeting perceived RSF supporters in recaptured areas.
Humanitarian Crisis: A Call for African Solidarity
The humanitarian situation is dire, with Sudan’s Ministry of Health reporting over 60,000 cholera cases and 1,600 deaths between August 2024 and May 2025. Displacement continues, with over 16,000 people displaced in a single week in June 2025, including 1,000 from El-Fasher. The “Halfa Flash Crisis” saw 1,325 people flee the Northern Sudanese Al Muthallath area between June 11 and 15, 2025, due to the presence of RSF forces, as noted by human rights groups. In South Kordofan’s Al Quoz, civilians face displacement and lack of aid, with schools closed and children at risk of recruitment, threatening Africa’s future generations.
International Response: The Need for African Leadership
Mediation efforts by the African Union and the UN have failed to secure a lasting ceasefire. Support from external actors to both sides has prolonged the conflict, complicating peace negotiations and undermining African sovereignty. Humanitarian organizations face attacks, such as a UN convoy bombing in Al Koma on June 2, 2025, killing five staff members. The UN has called for increased funding and safe access, but resources remain insufficient, highlighting the need for African-led humanitarian initiatives.
Towards Justice and Unity: Overcoming Impunity and Division
The RSF’s alleged crimes underscore the challenge of achieving accountability in Sudan, where impunity has persisted since the Darfur conflict. The ICC’s jurisdiction over Sudan since 2005 offers a pathway for justice, but political obstacles hinder cooperation. The use of sexual violence as a weapon of war in RSF-controlled areas demands targeted interventions, including support for survivors and sanctions, as recognized by UN Security Council resolutions.
The conflict’s economic dimensions, particularly the RSF’s control over gold mines, mirror resource-driven conflicts in African nations, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Disrupting illicit revenue streams and promoting equitable resource allocation are crucial for achieving peace. The rise of armed civilian groups risks further fragmentation, emphasizing the need for inclusive peace processes led by African institutions.
Children are particularly vulnerable, facing displacement, recruitment, and disrupted education. Humanitarian groups report school closures in conflict zones, depriving thousands of education. African civil society plays a vital role in advocating for civilian protection and aid delivery, but faces threats and resource constraints. Across Africa, activists have voiced solidarity with Sudan, calling for an end to violence and accountability, building a continental movement for justice.
Table: Key Humanitarian Impacts of Sudan’s Civil War (as of June 2025)
Indicator | Details |
Estimated Deaths | Up to 150,000, as per UN estimates |
Displaced Persons | Over 12 million, with many fleeing to neighboring African countries |
People Facing Hunger | 25 million facing acute hunger, according to UN reports |
Cholera Cases | Over 60,000 cases, with 1,600 deaths (August 2024–May 2025) |
Recent Displacement | 16,000 displaced in one week (June 2025), including 1,000 from El-Fasher |
Child Vulnerabilities | School closures risk of recruitment into armed groups |
A Path Forward: African Solutions for Sudan’s Crisis
Sudan’s civil war, driven by historical grievances, power struggles, and external interference, poses a significant threat to regional and continental stability. The RSF’s evolution into a force with political ambitions, coupled with its alleged atrocities, complicates peace efforts. The humanitarian crisis, marked by displacement, famine, and disease, demands urgent action. From a Pan-Africanist perspective, African institutions, such as the African Union, must lead mediation and peacebuilding efforts, prioritizing solutions rooted in African values. Accountability for human rights abuses, inclusive dialogue, and structural reforms are essential to address the conflict’s root causes and pave the way for a stable, equitable future for Sudan and Africa.